PENTATEUCH [PEN tuh tuke] — a Greek term meaning “five-volumed” which refers to the first five books of the Old Testament. The Jews traditionally refer to this collection as “the Book of the Law,” or simply “the Law.” Another word for this collection, “Torah,” means “instruction, teaching, or doctrine.” It describes such basic sections of the Pentateuch as parts of Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy.

This ancient division of the Law into five sections is supported by the SEPTUAGINT, a third-century B.C. translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek, and also by the SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH, which is even earlier.

The five books together present a history of humanity from creation to the death of Moses, with particular attention to the development of the Hebrew people. The activity of God receives special emphasis throughout, and the Pentateuch reveals a great deal about God's nature and His purposes for mankind.

The Pentateuch is generally divided into six major sections: (1) the creation of the world and its inhabitants (Genesis 1–11); (2) the period from Abraham to Joseph (Genesis 12–50); (3) Moses and the departure of the Israelites from Egypt (Exodus 1–18); (4) God's revelation at Sinai (Exodus 19—Numbers 10); (5) the wilderness wanderings (Numbers 11–36); and (6) the addresses of Moses (Deuteronomy 1–34).

From the time it was written, the Pentateuch was consistently accepted as the work of Moses. His specific writing or compiling activity is mentioned in the Pentateuch (Ex. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27), while in the post-exilic writings the Law, or Torah, was often attributed directly to Moses (Neh. 8:1; 2 Chr. 25:4; 35:12). This tradition was supported by Christ in New Testament times (Mark 12:26; John 7:23).

The Pentateuch was also called the Law of the Lord (2 Chr. 31:3; Luke 2:23–24) and “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh. 8:18). The word “book” should not be understood in its modern sense, for several different writing materials were used by Old Testament SCRIBES, including papyrus and leather scrolls or sheets, pieces of broken pottery, clay tablets, and stone. The word “book” has two important usages in connection with the Law. First, it indicates that the material referred to was in written form at an early period. Second, it shows the combination of divine authorship and human transmission that gave the Law its supreme authority and made it “The Book” for the ancient Hebrews.

The Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was accepted without question for centuries by both Jews and Christians. Occasionally, the account of Moses’ death (Deut. 34:5–8) was questioned, but in the Jewish TALMUD, a collection of rabbinical laws and interpretations of the Torah, the section was said to have been written by Joshua. In the Middle Ages Jewish and Christian scholars began to point to supposed contradictions and insertions in the Law, some of the latter being credited to Ezra.

In spite of these objections, most people believed unquestioningly in Moses as the author; but criticism took on a new appearance in 1753 with a theory by Jean Astruc, a French physician, that Moses had used two principal literary sources from which he composed the Book of Genesis: one contained the divine name Elohim (“God”) and the other contained the divine name Jehovah or Yahweh (“the LORD”).

With the expansion of this suggestion by later authors came the increasing abandonment of belief in Mosaic authorship, and support for the view that the Pentateuch was compiled by unknown editors from a number of documents. It became common to attribute sections of the Pentateuch to late periods in Israel's history. Even the main documents from which the Pentateuch had supposedly been compiled were assigned to periods long after the time of Moses.

In the 19th century the Book of Deuteronomy began to be regarded as the law-scroll found in the time of Joshua (2 Kin. 22:8–10), and written at about that time, according to many scholars.

While more conservative thinkers rejected these conclusions, the liberal humanism of the day pushed forward with its suppositions. Allied with the views of organic evolutionists, it presented its opinions about the authorship of Genesis as “scientific.” Actually, these liberal scholars were using procedures that were the exact opposite of true scientific method. But this did not prevent them from making pronouncements that amounted to rewriting history. Thus, all priestly materials in the Pentateuch were assigned to one main documentary source and regarded as late rather than early.

According to the liberal view, the tabernacle could no longer be dated in the days of Moses. It was regarded instead as a much later invention, based on the design of the Jerusalem temple, that had been put back into the Mosaic period by an anonymous compiler or editor. Israelite religion was interpreted in evolutionary terms as originating in the worship of spirits in nature, then advancing slowly from simple family sacrifices to the high view of God as the one and only true God.

This type of approach was aided by the 19th century emphasis on evolution. The liberal view found its fullest development in the supposition that the Pentateuch was compiled from four principal documents, none of which was in writing before about 850 B.C. This theory of composition, popularized by Julius Wellhausen in 1878, is still held by liberal scholars, but with slight changes in emphasis because of the pressure of more recent discoveries.

This view of the compilation of the Pentateuch has had its critics at every stage. Some of the presuppositions of the liberal position are incorrect. One example is the notion that writing was only invented about the time of David (about 1000 B.C.). Evidence to the contrary already existed in Wellhausen's day, but it was ignored. Most recently, the EBLA Tablet discoveries show that a sophisticated language was in use in the ancient world about 2400 B.C.

It is now known that all priestly pronouncements dealing with social organization in the ancient world are always early rather than late, because priests were originally responsible for such matters. Furthermore, exhaustive comparative studies have shown that no other composition of the ancient Near East was assembled in the manner that liberal scholars claimed was the case with the Pentateuch. Archaeological and linguistic studies have confirmed many old customs recorded in the Pentateuch. These discoveries have provided an excellent background against which we can understand the Law of Moses.

To date, no articles that would prove the existence of such persons as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob have been recovered. But if the traditions about the nature and location of the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23:17) are correct, we know the actual burial place of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, and Jacob.

Studies in Genesis have shown that the book was compiled from genuine literary sources. But these are vastly different from those imagined by liberal scholarship. Generally speaking, the liberal view has failed to take account of ancient methods of compiling and transmitting information. Liberal scholars have supposed that Western editorial methods can be applied equally well to Near Eastern compositions, which is simply not true.

Whereas the 19th-century critics relied heavily upon the handing down of material by word of mouth, subsequent studies have shown that anything of importance in the ancient world was written down when it happened or shortly afterward. Furthermore, this record was quite independent of any verbal accounts passed on to later generations. Not all written or spoken material survived, of course; but enough did to provide us with the Pentateuch, as well as other Scriptures.

Finally, any suggestion that the five books of Moses are basically fraudulent in nature, not actually having been compiled or written by Moses, is contrary to Jewish tradition, as well as the nature of God as revealed in the Torah.

The five books of the Pentateuch can be described as follows:

Genesis. This “book of beginnings” contains very ancient material, describing mankind's place in God's creation and the unfolding of human history. It begins with an account of how the universe came into existence (1:1–2:4), followed by narratives about Adam and Eve and their sin of disobedience (2:5–3:24). The descendants of Adam are described (4:1–5:32), and after this the reasons for a disastrous flood and its consequences (6:1–9:29). Nations spread across the Near East after the Flood (10:1–11:32), and Abraham became prominent after obeying God's call (12:1–25:11). Thereafter the narratives continue with Ishmael, Isaac, and Jacob (25:12–36:43), concluding with the story of Joseph's career (37:1–50:26).

Genesis is important for its theology of creation, sin, and the divine plan of salvation because it provides answers about these matters. If Scripture did not begin in this way, New Testament theology would have little foundation in history. Genesis deals with real people. Near Eastern archaeological discoveries provide an important background to the narratives that describe their activities. The covenants between God and persons such as Noah and Abraham point forward to the covenant under Moses at Mount Sinai. They also point to the new covenant in Jesus Christ.

No author is named for the Book of Genesis, although it has always been regarded as a cornerstone of the Law, and therefore probably written by Moses. In contrast to the artificial sources proposed by liberal criticism, genuine blocks of source material can be recognized in the narratives. Eleven such units can be recovered by observing the phrase “These are the generations [that is, family histories] of” at the headings of major sections. Genesis was apparently compiled by placing these units end to end.

Exodus. This book deals with the miracle of Israel's deliverance from Egypt and with God's covenant relationship with the Israelites at Mount Sinai. Preliminaries to the departure from Egypt (Ex. 1:1–4:28) are followed by the circumstances leading up to the Exodus, including the ten PLAGUES OF EGYPT and the celebrating of the first PASSOVER (4:29–12:36). The deliverance from Egypt and the subsequent journey to Sinai (12:37–19:2) precede the giving of the Law of God through Moses (19:3–31:8), in spite of intervals of idolatry (32:1–33:23). A renewal of the covenant relationship is followed by narratives describing the construction of the tabernacle (34:1–40:38).

The Book of Exodus continues Hebrew history from the death of Joseph, showing how the sons of Jacob became a distinctive nation. The COVENANT was central to this event. It bound God and Israel in an agreement by which God undertook to provide for all His people's mate-rial needs, including a land in which to live, if they would worship Him alone as the one true God and live as a holy community. Central to the rules of the covenant were the Ten Commandments, which are still fundamental to any relationship with God. The tabernacle was a portable place of worship that was placed in the center of Israel's wilderness encampment, symbolizing God's presence in their midst.

Leviticus. This is a book primarily for priests. The priests were responsible for teaching the Law to the people, conducting sacrificial worship in the tabernacle according to the directions given by God, and ordering the life of the community. Because Israel was meant to live as a holy people (Ex. 19:6), Leviticus contained regulations for both the spiritual and material aspects of life. These rules can be divided into five sections: (1) sacrificial laws (Leviticus 1–7); (2) laws governing ordination (Leviticus 8–10); (3) laws about impurities (Leviticus 11–16); (4) laws about holiness (Leviticus 17–26); and (5) rules governing vows (Leviticus 27).

All this material was divinely revealed to the nation of Israel directly from God. No part of it has been adopted from any other nation. The Year of Jubilee legislation (Lev. 25:8–17) is unique in the Near East. Leviticus continues the narrative of Exodus, but it emphasizes the way in which God is to be worshiped and the manner in which His people are to live. Holiness must govern the community (Lev. 11:44); and this must be reflected by everyone, not just the priesthood.

Numbers. This book follows the lead given by Leviticus in emphasizing the holiness of Israel. All the various elements that make up the book bear upon this important concept. The book can be divided into three broad sections: (1) the departure from Sinai (1:1–10:10); (2) the journey to Kadesh (10:11–20:21); and (3) the journey from Kadesh to Moab (20:22–30:13). The holiness of the tabernacle is central, as is the important place that the Levites occupied (8:5–26) in relation to the Aaronic priesthood. The description of the wilderness wanderings shows how quickly divine blessing could turn to severe judgment whenever God's commandments were broken.

The disobedience and idolatry of the Israelites is a sad theme in Numbers. Even Moses was not totally obedient to God. Although he brought Israel to Moab and within sight of the Promised Land, he was not privileged to lead the nation across the Jordan River. The book ends with the nation looking forward to the settlement of Canaan.

Deuteronomy. This book may be described as a covenant-renewal document that begins with a review of Israel's departure from Sinai (1:1–4:40); describes the religious foundation of the nation (4:44–26:19); reestablishes the covenant (27:1–30:20); and narrates the final days of Moses (31:1–34:12). In Deuteronomy Moses looks back upon God's blessing and provision while looking forward to the time when Israel will occupy the Promised Land.

The language of the book is noble oratory that glorifies the righteous and faithful God of Sinai and encourages the response of His people in obedience and faithfulness. The God revealed in Moses’ addresses is not only the Judge of all the earth, but also the loving Father of mankind. Israel is reminded that the privileges of covenant relationship with Him also carry responsibilities. Moses predicts a dark future for the nation if it does not follow the covenant principles and remain faithful to God.